- Kato Hidetoshi's Data Base -
The Japanese Enigma -Money Talks
Publication Date:198704
Book title: Nato's Sixteen Nations (Vol.32)
Publisher : International Press Center
The Japanese Enigma -Money Talks
@198704^NATO's Sixteen Nations (Vol.32)iInternational Press Centerj
One of the best and the most interesting keys through which one can learn the values held and shared by people is to observe the portraits printed on paper currency of the country under consideration. This is because these portraits imply, more or less, the ideal of which the people are proud. In certain countries, the heroes depicted on the bills are kings and queens of the past and present, while in others, the portraits are those of military leaders. The meaning behind the portraits usually express the symbol of a national state.
Japan, as an emerging economic big power, is taken as "enigmatic" by the rest of the world today, because she has been so successful in achieving rapid industrialization in the past century, especially in the post-war period. Many foreigners ask why Japan could do that, and hundreds of other questions relative to Japan's modern history and contemporary success, for better or worse. The answer could be diversified. But as suggested at the outset, it may be worthwhile to investigate the implications of the portraits that appear on Japanese currencies. It may sound a little bit slanted to respond to those who see Japan as "enigmatic", but even just for fun, let us take a closer look at the portraits on Japanese currency and let the heroes speak so that they may be able to answer the questions raised by foreigners.
The first portrait is that of Yukichi Fukuzawa who symbolizes the 10,000 yen bill (equivalent of $65, thanks to high appreciation of the Yen). Born in 1835 as a son of lower class Samurai (warrior) class in the island of Kyushu, Fukuzawa spent his earlier 33 years of his life before Meiji Revolution (the author prefers the term "revolution" rather than "restoration") of 1868, and the latter half of his own history after the Revolution. Since when he was a small child, he was skeptical and critical about hierarchical feudal social system where the people were contended with ascribed social status. Having been born in lower social status, Fukuzawa decided to study firearms because this new military technology was one of the very limited means by which a person could be recognized of his ability and be given a higher status. He started the studies when he was 20 years old, and in order to do so, he discovered that the learning of Dutch language was vital, as up-date information on firearms was available in Dutch, the only authorized foreign language of that time. He demonstrated his academic brilliance in this area, but his interest shifted from military to medical science. Mobilizing his extraordinary language skill, Fukuzawa decided to dedicate his life for the study of western medicine. To sustain his living, he translated technical books on medicine into Japanese.
His medical student days, however, did not continue, as American Navy under the command of Commodore Perry visited Japan and asked to open the door. As a language specialist, Fukuzawa was appointed as a translator-interpreter of old Japanese government. To his surprise, at his arrival to Edo (Tokyo), he found that English was much more often used than Dutch, and he started to study English. As an official interpreter of the Japanese mission to the United States, he was dispatched to America in 1861. After the revolution, he decided to work in the field of education, though he was solicited to be a liaison officer by a new government. He inaugurated his own small private school called Keio Giijyuku, known as Keio University in Tokyo. He was an enlightened liberal thinker, and since he knew the facts of life in western countries, he started writing. The first book he published was titled "Seiyo Jijyo" (Fact Book on Western Countries) in order to let the people of Japan know about Europe and America. The book sold very well, partly because the general public wanted to know the world and partly because Fukuzawa's style was plain and informal. The second book titled "Gakumon no Susume" (Encouragement of Learning) which was first published in 1873 turned out to be a best-selling book, and altogether some 700,000 copies were sold in a matter of few years. The book appealed to its readers that human beings were equal by nature and that a man should demonstrate his best through serious learning and achievements. The young generation of the day was stimulated and encouraged by the book, and the policy of the new government also was in tune with Fukuzawa's philosophy in the sense that education was the key for nation building and that the recruitment of highly talented people had to be done through examination of the achievements of individuals rather than appointments by ascription. As the result, regardless of one's family backgrounds, ambitious and capable young people were selected as the leaders of public administration, business, and academic world. Indeed, contrasting to widely shared view of Japanese society as "class oriented" hierarchy, the basic social ideology of modern Japan has been essentially egalitarian and achievement-oriented. As a matter of fact, even today, the ideology is still there, and there are many living examples that demonstrate the evidence of Fukuzawa's philosophy. For example, representative Japanese industrial firms today, such as Honda, Sony, or Panasonic are the companies that were initiated by self-made and inventive businessmen. It is interesting to note that none of these companies existed before 1945. In this connection, it is natural that Fukuzawa, the first advocate of liberal and egalitarian thinking, has been taken as a national hero of modern Japan.
The second portrait is that of Inazo Nitobe, who is printed on the 5,000 yen bill. Nitobe, like Fukuzawa, came from Samurai class, but as a latecomer (born in 1862) he did not have much experience in pre-Revolutionary period. He was only a 6-year-old boy when the revolution took place. He was born in a northern province of Japan, which is now called Iwate prefecture, and his foresighted grandfather had a firm belief that new capital city, Tokyo, was the place where the child should go to get a good education. Nitobe was sent to Tokyo when he was 10 years old. Like many other highly motivated youth of the day, he concentrated his efforts in reading books written in English in order to absorb new knowledge and technology of the western countries. According to his record, at the age of 14, his apprehension of English was better than that of his Japanese, and when he reached 16, he happened to read Fukuzawa's "Encouragement of Learning" which excited him tremendously. He became a true believer of Fukuzawa's liberalism.
In 1877, he decided to move to Hokkaido, the northern island that awaited development, to study agriculture under Dr. Clark, a scholar visiting from the U.S. Nitobe was greatly influenced under Dr. Clark, and after spending five years in the cold Hokkaido, he came back to Tokyo. His instructor asked Nitobe about his future plan, and Nitobe immediately said, "I want to be a bridge across the Pacific", meaning that he gave himself a mission to act as a person to establish good relationship with the United States. In 1885, he finally decided to travel to America to broaden his academic knowledge. He took his courses at Johns Hopkins University, then moved to Belgium and Germany. He earned his doctorate at Halle University, Germany. During his stay in the United States, he married to an American lady. In that sense, he was the most internationally minded scholar of his day. Upon his return to Japan, he was appointed as a professor at Tokyo University, and he wrote books on agriculture, which was the subject he specialized in.
In spite of his seeming cosmopolitan activities, however, Nitobe never lost his identity as Japanese. In the first place, both in the United States and in Europe, he was often asked about moral education in Japan. The question was cast naturally by the peoples who had Christianity as the standard of moral education. In order to respond to such inquiries, Nitobe wrote a book under the title of "Bushido" (The Way of Saumrai) in which he stressed the moral of Japanese derived mainly from the Confucius ethics. By doing so, Nitobe proved that Japan had its own moral education that was different but still similar in nature with Christianity and other ethical codes. He said in the book that Confucius ethics were a part of Japanese life and the Japanese virtue such as honesty and diligence were the results of continuous moral education given in family, school and society as a whole. "Bushido", first published in English attracted the eyes of the world, and it was translated into seventeen languages.
As an agricultural scientist, he also spent much of his time for the betterment of Japanese agriculture. Especially, at the time when Taiwan was annexed as the result of Sino-Japanese war late in the 19th century, he was appointed as a consultant to the government to investigate the potential agricultural development of this new territory. After one year's careful research, he recommended that sugarcane could be the ideal crop in Taiwan. The government adopted his recommendation, and Taiwan became in the late 1920s, the second largest sugar producing area in the world, after Hawaii. Furthermore, he enthusiastically re-examined the agricultural policies of Japan at large, and his research stimulated serious studies on the issue among young scholars.
In 1912, because of his international reputation, he was appointed as the first exchange professor to the United States. He spent three years teaching at University of Chicago, Columbia University, Stanford University, and other major institutions in America. After this appointment, Nitobe discovered that "the bridge across the Pacific", the idea he had had since his student days, was vital for the future of Japan. And after many years of consultation and negotiation with his American colleagues, he organized a new research body called "Research Council on Pacific Issues" of which aim was to establish better understanding between Japan and the United States. The organization, being a non-governmental agency, made a great contribution for the improvement of bilateral relationship. He passed away in 1933 at the occasion of the 5th convention of the Council held in Seattle.
Looking back at his biography, it may be safe to say that Nitobe was a living model of Fukuzawa's liberalism, and at the same time, a pioneering hero who explored Japan's international relationship. As mentioned before, in spite of his cosmopolitan life style, he was always aware of his identity as Japanese and tried his best to introduce Japan and Japanese to the world. That is exactly the reason why Nitobe's portrait is proudly held as a national hero in the minds of contemporary Japanese.
Soseki Natsume, whose picture appears on the 1,000 yen bill is slightly different from the two whose names were already mentioned. Contrasting to Fukuzawa and Nitobe, Natsume was born in 1867, exactly at the time of Meiji Revolution. In other words, he belongs to the pure post-revolution generation. His family background was a merchant of Tokyo, and he went through newly reformed education system. According to his biography, he was interested in architecture but modern construction engineering was not mature enough to meet with his ambition, and he shifted his interest to literature. He was very talented both in Chinese classics and English, and since instructors of English literature were in high demand, he decided to study and teach English language and literature. After graduating from Tokyo Imperial University, he took teaching appointments in various schools, and in 1907, because of his achievements, he was dispatched to London as a government-funded researcher. However, unlike Fukuzawa or Nitobe, Natsume was not so excited to go abroad. Quite on the contrary, he did not have much pleasant experience while he was in England. Out of his difficulty to adjust to this foreign country, he became neurotic. As a matter of fact, his personality was more or less inward, and even without his experience in London, he was a person who investigated the inner conflicts of his mind. According to him, human beings were egoistic in nature, and his basic problem was how to overcome the ego. In order to do so, he spent some time in a Zen temple and was also attracted by the world of Haiku. The best way to express his inner agony and sufferings, he thought, was through novel writing. As a gifted writer, he wrote a series of serious fiction interwoven with bitter sense of humor and satire, which made him famous. After many years of teaching, he finally decided to take an offer from the Asahi, the most prestigious newspaper as a free-lance columnist. In contrast to the optimism shared both by Fukuzawa and Nitobe, Natsume was a pessimist. He was even skeptical about the concept of progress. Western individualism that was highly valued by both Fukuzawa and Nitobe was the origin of vice from Natsume's viewpoint. His favorite phrase was "Shokuten Kyoshi", meaning "follow the voice of heaven and discard one's ego", and this philosophy may be seen as a neo-Confucius doctrine in the era of industrialization. However, his writings are not metaphysical at all. Natsume's style was plain, and he set various situations in social and personal relations that everyone could understand easily. As a matter of fact, some of his novels are still read widely among high school and university students of today who are seriously concerned about the meaning of live. It may be quite safe to say that Natsume was, and is, one of the greatest authors of modern Japan.
After reviewing the three eminent heroes, it may be worthwhile to ponder the implications. There are several commonalties shared by the three. In the first place, as repeated already, they were the men of achievements. Their statuses were the result of their achieving motivation and not that of ascription. None of them were born in rich family. Rather, they came from the bottom of society, and it indicates extraordinarily flexible social mobility in modern Japan. The competitiveness of entrance examination in Japanese higher education is world famous, even notorious, but in order to select highly talented people, Japan took a radical egalitarian philosophy. This public policy has been the major encouraging factor for Japanese youth in the past one hundred years.
In the second place, they were interested and gifted in foreign language and foreign studies. Even in the case of Natsume, who did not have good experience while in England, he learned a lot about literary theory and modern style of prose. They knew the importance of international relations, and they were knowledgeable of other countries, the extreme case, needless to say, was Nitobe. They were well aware of the fact that Japan could not be an isolated nation-state, and that to get acquainted with other countries, especially Euope and America was vitally necessary for the future of the country.
In the third place, as obvious from the preceding paragraphs, they were men of literature, and scholar. It may be a continuation of "literal" tradition of East Asia, but there has been strong social esteem to those who achieved themselves in academia. There were many great politicians and public administrators who shaped new Japan after the revolution, but both Japanese government and public selected these three eminent scholars as the symbol of modern Japan to be printed on the currency. Furthermore, they were not only scholars but also great educators, which implies that education has been thought to be the key for the development of Japan as a modern nation-state. The zeal for education in Japanese society is a well known fact, and at present, senior high school is substantively a part of compulsive education and 40% of high school graduates take courses in colleges and universities. It seems hat Japanese people has had firm belief that education is a decisive factor both for individual's life and for the development of society as a whole.
Of course, there are distinctive differences among the three heroes. Fukuzawa was an enlightened liberal rationalist, Nitobe was a man of belief, and Natsume was a self-reflective inward skepticist. They represent different types of intellectuals, and these three types of men are combined in Japanese currency. Japanese enigma may be explained by simply looking at the portraits that appear on Japanese money. To be sure, money talks.
Kato Hidetoshi's Data Base
Document ID Number: 3192