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The Trend toward Affirmation of War: 'Norakuro'
Publication Date: 1971.spring
Book title:The Japan Interpreter
Publisher : The Center for Japanese Social and political Studies
The Trend Toward Affirmation of War: "Norakuro" (19710400, Japan Interpreter)
In the January 1931 issue of Shonen Kurabu ("Boys' Club", a popular children's magazine published by Kodansha from 1915 to 1941), a tiny jet-black dog made his debut. He was a bedraggled, shapeless waif of a dog. He came up to the entrance of the "Fierce Dog Regiment" barracks. When the sentry said, "What the....?" Who're you?", he answered offhandedly, "I am Norainu no Kuro (Stray Dog Blackie), but call me Norakuro. I want to join up and fight. Can you take me?"
The guard took him straight away to the bulldog regimental commander who shouted a quick rebuff, "We don't have any room for runts like you in the ﾔFierce Dog Regiment'!" Startled, Norakuro jumped violently into the air. Just at that moment, an empty shell case that was hanging decoratively from the barracks gate broke loose and landed on the bull's head. Norakuro laughed in glee. To hide his embarrassment, the bull called the noncom and said, "Hey, find some work for this guy". The noncom said, "Yes, sir, we'll put him on KP".
So began the first installment of "Norakuro". The cartoonist was Tagawa Suiho, whose real name was Takamizawa Nakataro.
An Alumnus of MAVO
Tagawa was not originally a cartoonist. He started out as an avant-garde artist. In the early Showa years, he was an active and enthusiastic rebel against the established art world. But the resistance of one unknown youthful artist was like pounding one's head against a stone wall. Finally, he joined an association called MAVO, a group of anarchist-Bolshevik artists. "MAVO" apparently had no special meaning. According to one theory, the leader, Murayama Tomoyoshi, chose the name by randomly scattering bits of paper inscribed with the member's initials. The first four he picked up spelled MAVO.
MAVO was active during the late Taisho period and its members caused quite a sensation. Murayama, for example, created a work called "Swedish Dancer's Shoes", a painting onto whose surface were stuck real shoes and hair from the head of a woman. It was truly an example of avant-garde art. Other members "created" similarly bizarre things such as an arrangement of under shorts hung from the ceiling, and a gasoline hose connected to a rusty machine. They indiscriminately entitled these works "Periodic series in the conscious world of subconscious ideas" or "Man loving fields in the A scene". The avant-garde of every period is like that. It is also true that being an avant-garde does not make one rich. Tagawa was no exception; he simply couldn't make enough to eat. What should he do? He had a particular talent for nonsense. He was an Edokko born in Honjyo and was good at rakugo (comical burlesque repartee). He decided he would make his living by writing rakugo. He could also have made a living by conventional painting, but out of respect for the avant-garde he eschewed such work and set about making his way in a world beyond his paint brushes.
Just at that juncture, Kodansha's magazine Omoshiro Kurabu ("Fun Club") was looking for some new rakugo copies. There were not many writers of that genre and so Tagawa decided to take one of his rakugo manuscripts to the editorial department. An editor glanced at it and said, "Good, we'll take it. Tell the write to keep producing this for us". Tagawa realized that his get-up of rubashka (Russian peasant's blouse) and muddy soldier's boots would certainly give him no semblance of a writer of rakugo. He had been mistaken for a messenger.
In any case, he discovered that his writing was saleable. Having found a way to make a living, he wrote rakugo month after month. The editor finally recognized this poor art student as the real author of the material. Then, one day the editorial department made a proposition: "You've always been an artist, haven't you? How about drawing some cartoons for us?"
Cartoons, to put it simply, can be of two kinds: the single cartoon and the continued cartoon or comic strip. The major difference between them is that a narrative or story is essential for the latter. A plot is needed. Especially in serialized comic strips in the magazine media it is essential that the cartoonist be as skillful at building plots as he is at drawing. Already aware of Tagawa's skill as a narrative author from his rakugo compositions, the editor asked him to draw cartoons. There was no question that a first rate comic strip could be developed from a felicitous combination of his narrative and drawing talents.
By this time Tagawa was no longer as committed to the avant-garde as he had been. Moreover, a cartoon is after all only a cartoon and not art - or so he thought, and just to keep his hand in, he took up his paintbrush again. He drew his first strip for Kodansha's Kingu ("King"" magazine) and Omoshiro Kurabu. It ran for fifteen issues.
From 1928 to 1929, "Saucer-eyed Runt" (Medama no Chibichan) was carried in Shonen Kurabu. A new continued comic strip was then proposed for Shonen Kurabu and the plot was put together in discussions with Nishimura Toshinari of the editorial department. First of all, the hero should be a dog that children would like. Second, this dog should play soldier, also fun for kids. That was the rough outline of "Norakuro". Tagawa himself devised the particulars.
The Pathetic Stray Dog
Reminiscing about the "Norakuro" plot, Tagawa had said:
What setting was suitable for this dog? At that time, I was a young fellow and I wasn't at all happy with the social set-up. The distribution of wealth was unfair, the rich and the poor were poles apart. First, I would put the story together from the standpoint of the poor. This dog would start out homeless, from the depths of poverty. A stray dog without home or family, and moreover, not very bright. He would try to do the right thing but would end up getting it in the neck. I would start him out from a luckless, pitiable position in life. But the dog himself would not be at all downcast. The kids who read this would see the actions of a dog more stupid and unfortunate than themselves, and I thought that if I just tried, I could do those kids a real service. That was the beginning of my approach to the problem.
Thus, from the proclamation, "I am Stray Dog Blackie but call me Norakuro", the comic strip began.
Tagawa happily mused over the prospect. A comic strip ordinarily ran six months, a year at most, until it ended. Norakuro, somehow joining up with the "Fierce Dog Regiment" and repeating his comical failures over and over again, ought to be able to run for a year.
But once the comic strip began, it elicited a surprising response from its young readers. One episode, for example, contained a very dejected Norakuro; he was homeless and had no place to go on Sundays. Letters from the readers began to stream in. "Norakuro, if you don't have any place to go, come to my place next Sunday. I'll tell my mother and she'll give you a good dinner...." The editorial department decided that "Norakuro" should continue.
Tagawa had had two years of soldiering himself. It wasn't hard for him to keep the strip going for a second year. He decided that in the last part of the second year he would promote Norakuro to private first class and then, upon completion of his service, honorably discharge him. But Norakuro had already assumed a character independent of the intentions of his creator. Fan letters kept pouring in. Tagawa took the letters to him from the children and tossed them into a closet. Before he knew it, the closet was stacked full of letters. "Norakuro" had gotten away from Tagawa. At that time, an author's copyright was a matter of much less concern than it is today. When "Norakuro" became a sensation among children, different businessmen began to capitalize on it by manufacturing Norakuro commodities. At entertainment functions for the young, "Norakuro kan" (Norakuro pavilion) was built. "Norakuro stamps" were made. "Norakuro harmonicas", "Norakuro lunch pails", "Norakuro pencils", "Norakuro notebooks". It is no exaggeration to say that "Norakuro " took over children's culture completely. And certainly Norakuro took over Tagawa Suiho. There was no longer any question of continuing or not - from Private to Corporal and Corporal to Sergeant - on and on he went. In the end, Norakuro's life span reached eleven years, ending in October 1941, just before the beginning of the Pacific War.
Horie Tsunekichi, at that time in Kodansha's sales department, recollects the overwhelming response to "Norakuro":
When Norakuro was published in book form, Matsuya Department Store in Ginza was packed with children who had been waiting in line since early morning. We released about 300 copies there, but they were sold out immediately and many children went home empty-handed. We issued 134,000 copies of Private First Class Norakuro. It was the best seller of its time. And there were 125,000 copies of Corporal Norakuro.
People born in the late Taisho and early Showa periods who are now 30 to 45 years old will remember this as an accurate account of an extraordinary development. At that time, all children knew Norakuro.
The Shift to Reality
The popularity of "Norakuro" itself may be no more than an amusing episode. And to criticize it as a militaristic comic strip just because it used the army as a setting for its stories may appear unfounded. But in the context of various other phenomena that also appeared in the middle and late 30's, "Norakuro" was clearly a sign of the times.
As we have already seen, "Norakuro" was based at Kodansha, and it was not the only book published for juveniles by that company. What else emanated from the same source? From a broader perspective including other publications, let us consider "Norakuro" and its position in the cultural history of the times.
First, Yamanaka Minetaro's juvenile novels, Three hundred Miles Behind Enemy Lines, The Dawn of Asia and The Invisible Airplane are among the well-known books written for the wartime and early postwar generation. If first reading produces nostalgia, second reading gives the flavor of urgent crisis and what appears to be a Japanese challenge to the West.
In The Invisible Airplane (1936), a spy of a certain clearly western country steals blueprints for a new type aircraft - an electric-powered, noiseless and transparent aircraft - designed by Professor Oishi. Young Masao, nephew of the professor, gives chase together with an army dog, Takeru. Army personnel also get involved. Finally, in a happy ending, the Japanese Air Corps comes into possession of the design, and thus, of a new weapon.
The World's most invincible Weapon (1937) is still more like science fiction, and again, a western spy appears. Masao meets a man from outer space, an event that highlights the motif that "Japan must become a strong country, not yielding to any other, always fighting for justice."
Another novel reflecting popular trends of thought was Hirata Shinsaku's New Battleship Takachiho (1936). On the one hand, this recounts a brave struggle to acquire the North Pole; on the other, it is a story of the future Japanese-American war. Country A's fleet of 380 ships and Japan's 220 ships fleet engage in a great sea battle off the coast of New Guinea and the Japanese Navy gains the victory. The warship Une, with which contact was lost in 1887, is later found in the Arctic Ocean, upon which the North Pole is declared to be Japanese territory.
With Unno Juzo's The Floating Island Airbase (1939), the image of Japan's future war becomes even more clearly defined. The anonymity of a "Coutry A" is dispensed with and England and the Soviet Union are openly named as the hypothetical enemy countries. The two countries build an immense "island" in the South China Sea which actually turns out to be a super-class aircraft carrier. English Brigadier Ritt and Soviet Special Envoy Ivanov clasp hands and, with this man-made island as a base, plot their invasion of Japan. Japan is in danger! Thereupon, Navy Engineering Lieutenant Kawakami and Second Class Seaman Sugita secretly disguise themselves as coolies and infiltrate the floating island airbase. Carrying bombs in their own hands, they blow up the whole island.
To repeat, these are by now harmless, nostalgic stories for the generation that has now reached the 35 to 45 year-old age-bracket. But as children at the time these books appeared, that generation was receiving strong impressions about the impending international situation from these books. Or, rather, they were being indoctrinated. If we take another look at "Norakuro" in this context, we see that it cannot be dismissed simply as an innocent story. "Norakuro" began as stray dog Blackie and was nothing more than the hero of a funny serial. From 1932 to 1936, the Fierce Dog Regiment to which Norakuro belonged fought only against hilarious, laughter-provoking enemies, such as monkeys in 1932 and then fighting again against chimpanzees and kappas in 1935, and frogs in 1936. It was a fairytale.
In 1937, concurrently with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war, the enemies of the Fierce Dog Regiment changed to pigs. Those pigs, from every standpoint, were parodies of Chinese soldiers. The "Norakurro" fairytale was suddenly transformed at this point into a realistic story. By then, Norakuro had already been promoted to a Second Lieutenant with considerable responsibilities. Whatever the intentions of the author may have been, "Norakuro" functioned in society at large as a war comic. After the war, Tagawa reflected, "As I think of it now, I was a cat's paw of military imperialism". That may be overstated, but it is clear that "Norakuro" rationalized Japanese aggression on the Asian mainland and participated in the indoctrination of the juvenile world.
"Norakuro" was promoted as high as Major, but later was relieved of his position at his own request so he might be free. He went to Manchuria and worked at developing natural resources, but at that point the earlier humor disappeared and Tagawa, tired of deferring to the military and the intelligence service, put his brushes aside. What he had achieved in "Norakuro", however, was a telling symbol of the uncertain times, from the Manchurian Incident to the beginning of the Pacific War.
Kodansha Culture
Looking back over "Norakuro" and the series of juvenile stories by Yamanaka Minetaro and Unno Juzo, we notice one important effect of the writings of these authors: they became the medium for the establishment of a juvenile culture which spread across the entire nation. It is in relation to that culture that another look into the role of the Kodansha publishing company produces some interesting sidelights.
As is well known, the Dai Nippon Yubenkai Kodansha (Great Japan Oratorical and Storytelling Society) was established in 1909 by Noma Seiji. During the early Taisho years, Kodansha became firmly entrenched as the focal point of mass-oriented publishing activities in Japan and began putting out several key periodicals. In 1915, the first edition of Shonen Kurabu appeared. Noma thought that he would make Shonen Kurbau into an educational medium by using the traditional storytelling technique that Kodansha had employed from its beginning. It would be a new magazine that would emphasize the entertainment of storytelling while imparting a strong sense of justice. In a letter to "Our Readers", the magazine presented its inaugural statement of purpose as follows:
A manly young gentleman should possess the qualities of gentleness and manliness. The person who is tastefully dressed externally but internally has the durable strength of steel, who is obedient and pliant in time of peace but has a fiery disposition when emergencies arise, and fire enough to set heaven and earth ablaze; he is the kind of person we idealize. We will never cease to hope that all our young readers will strive to become such persons.
The initial issue did not sell well. Of 35,000 copies printed, 17,000 were not sold - a miserable showing. By dint of characteristic Kodansha perseverance, however, in 1923, 80,000 copies of each issue were printed and by 1935, circulation had actually reached 500,000. The growth was amazing. It was the first time there had ever been a juvenile magazine with a mass circulation of such proportions. The circulation figures alone are enough to explain why the closets in Tagawa Suiho's home were full of fan letters. It is not surprising, then, that "Norakuro", originally planned to run for one year, finally had to continue publication for eleven years. Just as the magazine Kingu was instrumental in shaping "mass culture" in Japan, Shonen Kurabu carried on the juvenile version of that culture, thus preparing the "reserve forces" of the masses. The serialized stories and comics carried in Shonen Kurabu were reprinted in book form, further consolidating the juvenile masses. For young girls, Kodansha put out Shojo Kurabu ("Misses' Club", first issue in 1923), and for the generation just beginning schook, Yonen Kurabu ("Children's Club", appearing first in 1926). Supplements of each of these magazines were provided and various services performed to maintain regular readership. On the foundation of those periodicals, Three Hundred Miles Behind Enemy Lines, then Norakururo, and then The Adventures of Dankichi brilliantly flourished.
The formation of a new juvenile culture in the early Showa period determined the ideological direction of Japanese mass culture. While that ideology did not make the people warlike, it certainly contributed to the popular feeling that war was a normal, everyday affair. No longer was war an object of fear for children. When he situation developed where war between Japan and America might break out at any moment, the children expected that it would. The psychological preparation was completed. We must re-evaluate "Norakuro" in this light and think of it not simply as another comic strip but as one aspect of that particular juvenile mass culture.
Kato Hidetoshi's Data Base
Document ID Number: 3191